How Does Plastic Travel in the Ocean

Map of ocean currents - (Pidwirny, 2006)

In 2017, scientists estimated that there was roughly 100 million tons of plastic in our oceans, with this figure constantly on the rise. The plastics are constantly circulating the globe via ocean currents which is the movement of sea water between locations, in a similar way to a conveyor belt, that are generated by a range of forces that change regionally including wind speed and force as well temperature difference. This has led to large accumulations, particularly of microplastic, specific areas of the ocean with the most well-known being the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. All the mentioned factors (plus many more) mean that rubbish from my university in Plymouth could end up polluting the Great Barrier Reef.

Ocean currents are defined as “a horizontal flow of water through the ocean” (according to the freedictionary.com) that redistributes heat from the sun through the globe. The movements that generate the currents are often seasonal and affected by a range of factors including:
• Differences in temperature
• Wind direction and speed
• Gravitational pull from moon and sun
• Rise and fall of the tides
• Salinity
• Atmospheric pressure

The global system of ocean currents has an important role within a range of ecosystems as well as the global climate. Ocean currents carry heat from tropical regions and transports and redistributes this heat away from the equator to warm coastal areas, making land more habitable and increasing soil fertility. They also have an impact on the weather as warmer water has a higher rate of evaporation, resulting in heavier rainfall in tropical regions which allows the tropical rainforests to have the heavy rainfall and humidity it is known for. This is what gives these rainforests the fertile soil that allows the beautiful tropical plants to grow. Currents also increase the biodiversity in the photic zone (or the top layer of the ocean) as upwelling occurs that bring nutrients to the surface. This allows phytoplankton to grow and increase in population that increase oxygen levels and provide more food for the primary consumers in the food chain. Needless to say this has a knock on effect and affects higher trophic levels within the ecosystem.

The global transport of plastics via ocean currents has created ‘rubbish hotspots’ such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Despite public belief, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is not a large mound of debris in the middle of the pacific like the name suggests and it is not even visible by satellite. The other name the Pacific Trash Vortex describes the area much better as it is a gyre containing high concentrations of marine litter and chemicals that circulate the North Pacific Ocean. With 1.9 million pieces of microplastic per square mile, the risk to the ecosystem in this area is huge and as 70% of all litter in the ocean sink to the floor the unseen impacts may be even greater than expected. The North Pacific Gyre keeps the debris circulating the North Pacific Ocean and creates convergence zones that are the natural gathering points within the ocean current system. In the case of the North Pacific, the two largest convergence zones are the western Garbage Patch and the eastern Garbage Patch (shown below). The constant movement of the gyre means that the microplastic and other marine debris remains trapped within the North Pacific ecosystem, amplifying the damage even more.

A map showing the North Pacific Garbage patch, (NOAA - Response and Restoration, 2013)

As the amount of plastic within our oceans continues to rise, we could be seeing more gatherings of plastics like the pacific garbage patch as it is transported globally and deposited by ocean currents. This has a huge impact on biodiversity in these areas and have been ingested by species, particularly seas turtles, as well as entangling others. With 17% or all threatened marine species being affected by plastic in our oceans, we need to be more aware that plastic does travel within our oceans and dropping a plastic bottle on your local beach could impact the Great Barrier Reef or be ingested by the endangered Leatherback turtle. 

References -

• Krieger, A. (2016, Febuary 7). What will it take to get plastics out of the ocean? Vox: https://www.vox.com/2016/2/7/10928788/ocean-plastic-pollution-solutions
• National Geographic. (2014, September 19). Great Pacific Garbage Patch.  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/great-pacific-garbage-patch/
• NOAA - Response and Restoration. (2013, Febuary 7th). How Big Is the "Great Pacific Garbage Patch"? Science vs. Myth. Office of Response and Restoration: https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/about/media/how-big-great-pacific-garbage-patch-science-vs-myth.html
• Pidwirny, M. (2006). Surface and Subsurface Ocean Currents: Ocean Current Map. Retrieved from Fundamentals of Physical Geography: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8q_1.html
• Sea Turtle Conservancy. (2017). Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Marine Debris. Sea Turtle Conservancy: https://conserveturtles.org/information-sea-turtles-threats-marine-debris/

Ghost Fishing: The unseen problem in our oceans

photograph of ghost gear on the sea bed -
https://www.ecosia.org/images?q=ghost+fishing#id=5D43E26A116A7D8952B16078B4095F728572BE87

With the growing human impact on our oceans being widely mentioned in the media (thanks Blue Planet) things like using plastic straws have fallen out of fashion with the general public being more conscious of our impact on marine life. Although I am so happy about the interest in our oceans, plastic straws only make up a small percentage of plastic waste and most of it is waste from the fishing industry. This got me thinking about ghost fishing, a subject I studied during college, that has such a huge negative impact but is barely spoken about in the media in an attempt to raise awareness of this growing problem.

So what is 'ghost fishing'? It's when old fishing equipment that is no longer in use has been abandoned in our oceans and still traps fish and other marine animals including the beloved sea turtle. This creates a positive feedback mechanism as the trapped fish act as bait for larger fish, capturing and endangering a greater number of marine species. The abandoned equipment also causes alterations to the sea floor, damaging the sea bed and the habitat for species including sea stars and crabs.

The abandoned 'ghost gear' accounts for 10% of all marine litter (which is a lot higher than plastic straws) and entangles, on average, 11 whales annually in West Coast America alone so imagine how many become injured or die globally because of this abandoned equipment. With an estimated 640,000 tonnes of fishing nets (not including lobster traps and other fishing gear) polluting our oceans we are putting a huge number of rare species at risk unnecessarily. With a single net entangling between 30-40 marine animals, these have a severe impact on the ecosystem as they have been known to entangle a huge range of species from sharks and whales to sea stars and small fish. Another environmental issue is the damage to habitat. Heavy equipment ,such as crab and lobster traps, sink to the bottom and disturb the sea bed and can be responsible for dredging as well as smothering organisms that live on the sea bed including sea grasses and crabs. Coral reefs are at great risk as ocean currents carry heavy traps that can destroy the coral habitat.

Currently there are several programmes an initiatives globally that aim to tackle and reduce this problem including the Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI), which DEFRA is participating in, that aims to improve the health of our marine ecosystems by removing discarded fishing gear. One thing they do is collect evidence and information including how much equipment has been collected and it is mapped to work out any trends and possible impacts to biodiversity by locating any hotspots. They also aim to define and enforce polices, including management of gear on board to ensure that no equipment is lost at seas particularly in stormy weather.  These are just a few simple ways this initiative is helping this growing issue and with participation from governments, NGO's and the private sector the GGGI will continue to develop further and hopefully achieve the aim of cleaner oceans. One example of a participating organisation is KIMO international which run the GGGI Solution Project in Scotland which is responsible for removing 50 tonnes of ghost gear from Scottish coastlines.

Ghost fishing has become much more regulated by governments who are aiming to punish those responsible but in my view much more can be done to tackle this growing issue starting with public awareness. Let's focus less on plastic straws and more on larger marine debris that has a much larger, and more fatal impact.


Resources -

•  Global Ghost Gear Initiative, Governance Bodies, NOAA, 2017, https://www.ghostgear.org/sites/default/files/attachments/gggi_governance_bodies.pdf 
• Global Ghost Gear Inititaive, NOAA, 2017, https://www.ghostgear.org/
•  Hannah Gould, Hidden problem of 'ghost gear': the abandoned fishing nets clogging up oceans, The Guardian, 10th September 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/sep/10/fishing-industry-vows-to-tackle-wildlife-deaths-from-ghost-gear
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Impact of "Ghost Fishing" via Derelict Fishing Gear, NOAA Marine Debris Programme Report, 2015, https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf
• FAO, Ghost nets hurting marine environment, United Nations, 2009, http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/19353/icode/

Easy Ways To Help Our Planet

Sue McMurray, WSU,
 https://news.wsu.edu/2015/10/01/hotel-greenwashing-dirties-eco-friendly-reputation/

With climate change being a current issue and continuing to grow in concern, it is more important that ever that we all do our part to help protect the environment. When talking to friends and family, many of them believe that it will be far to difficult or expensive. Granted the complete zero waste lifestyle, although possible, does take a lot more effort than a 'conventional' lifestyle but there are several simple changes or steps every homeowner can take to reduce our environmental impact.

First thing is to buy second hand or recycled goods. This can include using the library, charity shops or online stores such as Vinted (which I have spent too much time one ... whoops) which offer absolute bargains that will not only save you money but it will also helps reduce the demand for natural resources that are finite. Not to mention a reduction in the use of chemicals, dyes and synthetic fibres that end up polluting both our terrestrial and aquatic environments. Materials such as polyester (which makes up 60% of all clothing) and nylon is manufactured using petroleum which we all know contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect as well as leading to the creation of micro-plastics due to their non-biodegradable nature. With on 20 items of clothing being manufactured per person annually, it is no wonder that the fashion industry is the second most polluting industry globally and accounts for 10% of the global carbon footprint which makes sense if you take into account the transportation, soil erosion, water use and waste production.

Did you know it has been reported that paper coffee cups are responsible for the cutting of 6.5 million trees? Seems like a ridiculous number for a single hot drink. These cups have also been linked to the consumption of 4 billion gallons of water. Most of us think this isn't an issue if we just recycle them. Well you're wrong. These cups are coated in a polythene resin that makes it water proof which unfortunately means that the 16 billion cups we use every year end up in landfill. The simple solution is to take your own cup. I keep mine in my bag all the time and comes in handy at work, the library or just when I'm out and about. You can even buy fold up ones which take up less space. You can even save money with Costa and Starbucks offering a 25p discount and Pret offering double that. It may not seem like a lot but every penny counts!

Did you know that the meat industry is responsible for 20% of greenhouse gas emissions? Going veggie even just for one or two days a week will help to cut your carbon footprint massively. Even though I think a meat free diet is the best, cutting your meat intake will significantly reduce your environmental impact. With agricultural emissions predicted to increase 80% by 2050, it is more important than ever we start to understand the link between our diet and environmental damage. I could write pages on this so I might write a full post on this. I highly recommend that you watch Cowspiracy on Netflix as it sheds light on the truth about this link.

Although the 5p bag charge has encouraged us to bring our own bag, there is still those rare occasions we do buy one. Globally, we are using roughly 500 billion single use carrier bags annually which puts our environment at great risk with thousands of animals dying every year from ingestion alone. These bags easily end up in our oceans and lead to an increase of microplastic when they breakdown in sunlight and we are all aware of those dangers. My advice is to buy one of those fold up bags and keep them in your bag. That way when you buy something unexpectedly (or something you maybe shouldn't have) you'll be prepared to help the environment.

Get some reusable containers and prep lunch the night before. This will stop you from buying those supermarket meal deals that use a huge amount of single use plastics which have a huge ecological footprint. Obviously glass containers are better as there is less petroleum used, they're more durable and are easier to recycle. Not to mention they don't produce those dreaded microplastics!! You can also freeze leftovers for those days you can't be bothered to cook which may reduce the amount of take out you eat, again reducing the waste you produce. In 2015, the UK sent 7.3 million tonnes of food waste to landfill. Not only is this costing families and average of £700, but the food will breakdown in the landfill which will lead to an increase in methane production. Over a time period of 20 years, methane will do between 25 and 100 times more damage carbon dioxide meaning the extra from last nights dinner you threw away, could actually impact our environment.

If you're a keen gardener you should definitely have your own compost heap. Not only will this save you a huge amount of money long term (seeing as a bag of compost is roughly £7) but it will help reduce your environmental impact. Provided you turn the soil regularly, it will minimise the amount of methane product as less food waste makes it to landfill. Most pre-bagged compost is peat based, which is the decaying remains of plants such as sphagnum mosses, that has been mined for peat bogs that are often SSSI's. Unless the bag is clearly labelled 'peat free' the average bag of compost is on average 70% peat meaning that by buying these bags you could be encouraging the destruction of a rapidly declining habitat. In Ireland, roughly 80% of peat bogs have been destroyed which is a large number considering that peat bogs covered 17% of Ireland's land before we began mining. This put creatures, such as the otter and the peregrine falcon at risk of a declining population. There is the other issue of the large amount of greenhouse gases emitted by peat mining. Peat bogs are a large carbon sink and the draining process releases a large quantity of carbon dioxide amongst other greenhouse gases. Annually peat emits roughly 400,000 tonnes of carbon which is also caused by the spreading of peat compost that rapidly turns into carbon dioxide. Needless to say composting your food waste, from fruit and veg to coffee beans, is a great way of cutting your impact on landfill and reduce your carbon emissions. Not to mention you don't need that nasty plastic packaging that compost comes in.

A photo of a peat bog -
Susan Cooper, https://suzancc.blogspot.com/

Obviously there is so much more we can be doing, like using metal reusable bottles and seperating our waste, but these are just five ideas that are so simple to try. If you have any other tips feel free to share them below!




References -

• Dr. Mercola, Care What You Wear: The Benefits of Becoming Clothing Conscious, Mercola.com, October 2016, https://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2016/10/12/toxic-clothing-chemicals.aspx
• Deborah Drew and Genevieve Yehounme, The Apparel Industry’s Environmental Impact in 6 Graphics, World Resource Institute, July 2017, http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/07/apparel-industrys-environmental-impact-6-graphics
• Green Match, The Effects of Paper Coffee Cups on The Environment, February 2018, https://www.greenmatch.co.uk/blog/2015/06/the-effects-of-paper-coffee-cups-on-the-environment
• Nina Spitzer, The impact of disposable coffee cups on the environment, Sheknows, July 2009, https://www.sheknows.com/home-and-gardening/articles/810025/the-impact-of-disposable-coffee-cups-on-the-environment
• Plastic Free UK, Plastic Stats, May 2018, http://plasticfree.co.uk/plastic-stats/
• Hazel Sheffield, How the UK's household food waste problem is getting worse, The Guardian, January 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/how-the-uks-household-food-waste-problem-is-getting-worse-a7520171.html
• Animals United Movement A.U.M, The Facts, Cowspiracy: The Sustainability Secret, 2014, http://www.cowspiracy.com/facts/
• Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Peatlands, 2007, http://www.noticenature.ie/Peatlands.html
• Craig Sams, Gardeners should end their love affair with peat, The Gaurdian, April 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/green-living-blog/2012/apr/05/gardeners-peat-carbon

Is biodegradable plastic a thing and is it a solution?

Photo from https://www.thenational.ae/lifestyle/can-plant-based-degradable-plastic-solve-the-problem-1.746423

With the recent series of Blue Planet highlighting the magnitude of plastic pollution in our oceans, the general public have taken a greater interest in reducing the plastic we use which is definitely not a bad thing considering the fact that annually eight million tonnes of plastic waste enters our oceans. We as a society are heavily dependant on plastics with even the most eco-friendly of households still throwing away a large amount of plastic. 300 million tonnes of plastic are made each year 10% of which is recycled and just over 40% of plastics only being used once before discarded. Needless to say I get very excited when I see supermarkets seeing biodegradable bin liners and cling film but are these truly environmentally friendly and a permanent solution to our plastic problem?

Firstly, there is a major difference between bioplastic and bio-degadable plastic. Bioplastic are made from completely renewable sources that are biologically based ranging from corn oil to starches. these mean these breakdown naturally in the environment and are 100% compostable as they only contain organic matter. Bio-degradable plastics are still chemical based and still include petroleum based chemicals but have additives that causes a quicker breakdown in the environment. The words photodegradable and oxydegradable are probably a better way to describe these types of plastics. Due to the chemical content, there can still be toxic residue produced meaning these plastics cannot compost as some of the chemical residue can inhibit plant growth, unlike the bioplastics. There have also been reports that bio-degradable plastics still produce micro plastics which are easily ingested by fish and plankton and bioaccumulate up the food chain. It has been reported that in the North Atlantic Ocean, 73% of fish have ingested some form of plastic. Even though these bags do produce less plastic fragments and breakdown quicker than conventional plastic, bioplastic seems to be a better solution to this problem as it stops plastics from entering the ecosystem. However, my view is any option is still better than producing more conventional plastic.

Ignoring these differences, I thought it would be interesting to compare the differences between biodegradable plastics and conventional, petroleum based plastics. The first major advantage is that there is a lower oil consumption, mainly during the manufacturing process. Globally, 8 to 10% of all oil is used to created plastic and in the USA alone, 12 million barrels are used every year just for carrier bags. The lower fossil fuel consumption will lead to less CO2 emissions and subsequently a reduction in the enhanced greenhouse effect. However it does put into question if we would actually be saving oil because it will more than likely still be used, just for other purposes. Despite this, biodegradable plastics produce, on average, 0.8 tons of CO2 during production which is much lower than conventional plastic that produces 3.2 tons. This means the carbon footprint is significantly lower as well as reduced consumption of finite resources. Obviously 100% bioplastics are renewable but biodegradable plastics still require far less oil.

Another key advantage is the quicker rate of decomposition means that landfill and solid waste will be produced. Although there will be a need for composters, this will result in a much cleaner environment and the impact of plastic on biodiversity will be reduced. Considering that annually roughly 10,000 turtles consume carrier bags (as they mistake them for jellyfish) and decline should be accepted and the quicker rate of decomposition should help to reduce this number.

One main disadvantage is more of a social issue (presented by environmental sceptics) and is that it will encourage people to litter. To some extent I agree with this statement because one of the key points of anti litter campaigns is the environment and laziness could kick in. Would all of the general public stop to pick up their rubbish if they knew it would biodegrade? It is also worth pointing out this is still not the solution to litter and our waste problem as even though the residence time is significantly shorter, they still remain in our environment for a long period of time which could still lead to ingestion by wildlife and pother issues such as water pollution.

Another issue is cost. Not only are biodegradable plastics more expensive to make (due to a more complex manufacturing process) but they are also more expensive for consumers. As a student, I can say that my peers would be less likely to spend more on the simple things like bin liners and other single use items. This may also be the same issue for families or others on a budget. Even though they may only be £2 extra, to some that is a meal or a drink out. Given the choice many people will chose the cheaper option and until we can reduce the manufacturing process I fear that petroleum based plastics will still be the norm.

Whilst I believe bio-plastics are the future, the technology is very limited meaning it will be a while before they completely replace 'normal' plastic. They say you vote with your dollar (or pound) so as consumers we need to make small changes to the biodegradable options to encourage supermarkets to invest in bio-plastics.



References -

• https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/02/150212-ocean-debris-plastic-garbage-patches-science/
• https://www.ecowatch.com/22-facts-about-plastic-pollution-and-10-things-we-can-do-about-it-1881885971.html
• https://www.explainthatstuff.com/bioplastics.html
• http://www.craftechind.com/pros-cons-biodegradable-plastic/
• https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Life-Cycle-Assessment-for-Three-Types-of-Grocery-Bags.pdf

One Week's Worth of Plastic

So recently I've become interested in the zero waste movement and trying to cut down my plastic use. I feel that I do not produce a large amount of waste (seeing as I'm a single person household) and thought it would be interesting to test this and see how much single use plastic I throw away. I feel that this photo doesn't show how large this like actually was which also disappointed me because I truly believed I was making a conscious effort to reduce my plastic but evidently I was wrong. This got me thinking if zero waste is possible considering supermarkets cover everything in a toxic layer of plastic. Thankful I have alternatives, such as the market but for others it may not be affordable or accessible. Seeing as plastic is such a current issue why is it so hard to cut our use of them and who is really responsible for such high plastic consumption?

Obviously, the consumer holds the majority of responsibility because they chose what products they purchase and have the power to chose products with less plastics. However, I do understand the some families will be driven by cost and they may not have the option to chose zero waste options if they are more expensive. I did notice that Aldi (in my opinion) had one of the greatest unnecessary use of plastic and Aldi is known for being one of the more reasonably priced supermarkets. So this made me think if retails are ultimately responsible seeing as the majority of plastic is honestly just unnecessary. Do bananas really need to come wrapped in a single use plastic bag? This goes back to my belief that retailers should be held accountable for the unsustainable use of our finite resources.

Here are a few of the simple steps I have taken to reduce my plastic use:
- Bringing my own reusable cup
- Reusable shopping bags
-Buying plastic alternatives
- Bio degradable bin liners
- Buying loose fruit and veg
- Packing my own lunch in a reusable container

Should We Tax Plastic?

Recently the UK government has introduced a new 'Sugar Tax' which means that high sugar drinks have become a higher taxed item. The main goal is to entourage companies to reduce the sugar content of drinks to lower the price as part of a healthy living initiative. This got me think if a similar approach should be applied to single use plastics, specifically packaging. If you visit a supermarket everything is covered in single use plastic that just isn't necessary. I remember getting new toys a child and how difficult it was to remove the unnecessary plastic. My poor parents on Christmas must have cut themselves numerous times.Walking around the supermarket makes me think what actually needs it and the items with less plastic or are biodegradable are often more expensive. Shouldn't it be the other way around? With supermarkets creating over 800,000 tonnes of plastic a year I feel the government should be doing more to reduce waste production.

Image from The Gaurdian

Although the general public should be encouraged to reduce waste, companies should be targeted more in my opinion. My idea is that once a product has passed a certain amount of plastic (so over what is deemed necessary) they should be taxed to cover disposal and the environmental cost. This will make single use plastic items more expensive to consumers which in turn will also encourage consumers to seek alternatives for plastic. This could also result in large TNC's to invest in alternatives that are biodegradable and potentially tackle the ever growing micro plastic problem as there will be less plastic breaking down in our oceans. Did you know that 80% of plastic debris in the oceans come from land? The breakdown of these items create micro plastic fragments which are easily ingested by fish, particularly those lower in the food chain. This also causes chemicals to be released into the natural environment, such as BPA, many of which are toxic to living organisms.

 Not only will a plastic tax make fish populations healthier, but it will reduce the amount of plastic we, as the human population, ingest. We ingest a range of plastics that enter our bodies through contaminated food and water. One plastic we ingest is Polyvinylchloride (#3PVC), a key chemical in plastic food packaging, that has actually been linked to an increased rate of cancer and birth defects. With over a third of all seafood caught in the UK containing plastic, those with a high fish diet have the highest rate of ingestion. One study has shown that those with a high shellfish diet consume up to 11,000 plastic fragments.

We can't also forget that less plastic used for useless, and quite frankly stupid, packaging will reduce our oil consumption which is especially important as we are in danger of reaching 'peak oil'. With 8% of global oil use being manufacturing plastics, it would encourage better management and distribution of our shrinking petroleum reserves as well as reducing global greenhouse gas emissions.

Overall, I feel the TNC's should be held more responsible for their unsustainble use of plastics to reduce the amount of toxic plastic that we throw away and the only way to do this is with a financial incentive because we all know that is the only way to ensure this. I feel a plastic tax will make the plastic alternatives cheaper and therefore more widely used.

Further Reading

• ICIS, Plastics and their impact on human health, http://iciscenter.org/plastics-and-their-impacts-on-human-health/ 
• Teach the Earth, Plastics in the Ocean Affecting Human Health, https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/health/case_studies/plastics.html
• The Gaurdian, From sea to plate: how plastic got into our fish, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/feb/14/sea-to-plate-plastic-got-into-fish